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UNIVERSITY    OF    ILLINOIS    BULLETIN 

Issued  Weekly 
Vol.  XXII  October  6,  1924  No.  6 

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BUREAU  OF  EDUCATIONAL  RESEARCH  CIRCULAR  NO.  30 


BUREAU  OF  EDUCATIONAL  RESEARCH 
COLLEGE  OF  EDUCATION 

THE  EVALUATION 

AND  IMPROVEMENT  OF  SCHOOL 

BUILDINGS,  GROUNDS  AND 

EQUIPMENT 

By 

Charles  W.  Odell 

Associate,  Bureau  of  Educational  Research 


THE  UBRARI  OF  IHt 
FFB    7  1925 

SMIVEBSITY  OF  ILLINOIS 


PUBLISHED  BY  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS 
URBANA 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2012  with  funding  from 

University  of  Illinois  Urbana-Champaign 


http://www.archive.org/details/evaluationimprov30odel 


EVALUATION  AND  IMPROVEMENT  OF  SCHOOL 
BUILDINGS,  GROUNDS  AND  EQUIPMENT 

It  is  the  purpose  of  this  circular,  first,  to  present  a  brief  treat- 
ment of  the  evaluation  of  school  plants  by  means  of  score  cards  and, 
second,  to  give  a  somewhat  more  detailed  discussion  containing  sug- 
gestions as  to  how  school  buildings,  grounds  and  equipment  may  be 
improved  or  put  to  better  use.  The  suggestions  for  improvement  are 
intended  to  be  as  concrete  as  possible  and  in  no  case  to  involve  the 
expenditure  of  large  amounts  of  money.  Indeed,  some  changes  may 
be  carried  out  without  any  expense  whatsoever,  whereas  most  of  the 
others  require  very  small  sums. 

I.  THE  EVALUATION  OF  SCHOOL  PLANTS 

Although  school  plants  have  been  roughly  evaluated  ever  since 
they  were  first  constructed,  it  is  only  within  the  last  few  years  that 
this  evaluation  has  approached  objectivity.  During  the  last  decade 
a  number  of  score  cards  by  which  school  plants  and  their  equipment 
may  be  rated  have  been  devised.  Each  of  these  is  composed  of  a  num- 
ber of  items,  most  of  which  apply  to  building  plans  as  well  as  to 
buildings  already  in  existence.  In  addition  to  the  list  of  items,  several 
cards  provide,  either  as  an  integral  or  as  an  accompanying  part  of 
the  scale,  more  or  less  detailed  suggestions  both  as  to  the  accepted 
standards  and  the  most  common  deviations  below  these  standards. 
Thus  a  superintendent  or  anyone  may  use  these  scales  not  only  for 
actually  rating  a  school  plant  or  proposed  plans  but  also  for  improv- 
ing faults  in  an  existing  plant.  It  is  true  that  these  scales  yield  more 
reliable  ratings  when  used  by  experts  but  they  in  general  are  simple 
enough  and  are  accompanied  by  such  directions  that  they  can  be 
used  with  profit  by  a  school  administrator  who  is  willing  to  devote  a 
little  time  to  their  study.  In  order  to  secure  reliable  ratings  for 
buildings  it  is  recommended  that  at  least  two,  or  better  three,  persons 
do  the  scoring  and  that  their  scores  be  averaged. 

The  most  commonly  used  and  best  known  score  cards  are  the 
three  prepared  by  G.  D.  Strayer  and  N.  L.  Engelhardt;  the  Score 
Card  for  Village  and  Rural  School  Buildings  of  Four  Teachers  or 
Less,  the  Score  Card  for  City  School  Buildings  (elementary  schools) 

[3] 


and  the  Score  Card  for  High  School  Buildings.  The  items  to  be  con- 
sidered in  the  evaluation  of  a  school  building  have  been  weighted  bv 
determining  the  maximum  number  of  points  which  may  be  allowed 
for  each  item.  A  total  perfect  score  is  100.  The  cards  are  ac- 
companied by  manuals  that  discuss  and  elaborate  them  and  supply 
the  standards  necessary  for  their  proper  use.  They  may  be  obtained 
from  the  Bureau  of  Publications,  Teachers  College,  Columbia 
University. 

J.  O.  Betelle  has  prepared  a  Checking  Schedule  for  Projected 
School  Buildings,  which  may  be  secured  from  the  Bruce  Publishing 
Company.  Milwaukee,  Wisconsin.  This  consists  of  a  rather  long  list 
of  items  stated  in  question  form  which  should  be  considered  in  the 
planning  and  construction  of  a  school  building.  The  items  are  not 
weighted  nor  are  the  standards  given,  except  in  a  few  instances,  so 
that  it  is  impossible  to  compute  a  score  by  using  this  schedule. 

A  School-Building  Score  Card  for  One-Teacher  School  Buildings 
has  been  prepared  by  J.  E.  Butterworth.  It  consists  of  a  number  of 
items  with  appropriate  weights  for  each  and  is  similar  in  form  to  the 
score  cards  of  the  Strayer-Engelhardt  series.  The  total  number  of 
items  is  somewhat  greater  than  in  the  case  of  the  Strayer-Engel- 
hardt Score  Card  for  Milage  and  Rural  School  Buildings.  This  card 
may  be  secured  from  the  World  Book  Company. 

Another  similar  card  is  the  Score  Card  for  Rural  School  Build- 
ings prepared  by  the  Division  of  Schoolhouse  Planning  of  the  State 
Department  of  Education  of  North  Carolina.  In  form  and  structure 
it  resembles  the  two  previously  described. 

The  Score  Card  for  One-Teacher  Rural  School  Buildings  being 
prepared  by  E.  J.  Ashbaugh  and  P.  R.  Stevenson  is  probably  the 
best  for  such  buildings.  Although  printed,  it  is  not  yet  in  final  form. 
It  is  similar  to  the  Strayer-Engelhardt,  Butterworth  and  North  Caro- 
lina score  cards  in  that  it  contains  a  series  of  items  each  of  which  is 
weighted.  Its  chief  difference  is  that  after  each  item  three  degrees 
of  quality  or  merit,  standard,  fair  and  bad,  are  briefly  described  and 
the  number  of  points  credit  to  be  given  for  each  degree  is  indicated. 
For  example,  in  the  other  cards,  under  size  of  site  the  statement  is 
made  that  the  playground  should  contain  a  certain  amount  of  space 
for  each  pupil.  If  it  contains  less  than  this  amount  of  space  the  scorer 
must  judge  as  to  the  number  of  points  to  allow.  On  the  Ashbaugh- 
Stevenson  card  the  instructions  state  that  a  perfect  score  (30)  is  to 
be  given  for  a  site  of  two  acres,  a  score  of  15  for  one  acre  and  of  5 

[4] 


for  one-half  acre.  For  other  sizes,  proportional  scores  are  given. 
This  card  may  be  secured  by  addressing  the  authors  at  Ohio  State 
University. 

In  addition  to  the  score  cards  mentioned  above,  several  others 
have  appeared  which  are  not  confined  exclusively  to  the  building 
itself,  but  include  also  such  items  as  those  having  to  do  with  the 
organization  of  the  school  and  the  qualifications  of  the  teachers.  One 
such  card  is  a  blank  for  the  Classification  of  Elementary  Schools 
prepared  by  the  Division  of  School  Inspection  of  the  Department  of 
Public  Instruction  of  Indiana  and  may  be  secured  by  addressing  this 
department.  A  second  is  the  Missouri  Score  Card  for  Rural  Schools. 
Both  cards  contain  weights  for  the  various  items  so  that  actual  scores 
may  be  computed.  E.  C.  Witham  has  prepared  a  List  of  Points  for 
School  Measurement  without  weights  which  may  be  used  in  some- 
what the  same  way  as  the  Betelle  Checking  Schedule.  Copies  of  this 
may  be  secured  by  addressing  the  author  at  Wilmington,  Delaware. 
The  author  also  describes  the  card  in  an  article  in  the  Journal  of 
Educational  Psychology  for  December,  1914. 

II.    THE  IMPROVEMENT  OF  SCHOOL  BUILDINGS, 
GROUNDS,  AND   EQUIPMENT 

As  was  stated  in  the  introductory  paragraph,  the  purpose  of  this 
second  portion  of  the  circular  is  to  offer  a  number  of  concrete  sug- 
gestions as  to  how  school  buildings,  grounds  and  equipment  may 
be  improved  or  put  to  better  use  without  the  expenditure  of  large 
amounts  of  money. 

One  at  all  familiar  with  school  architecture  knows  that  almost  all 

buildings  prior  to  1910  and  many  of  those  erected  since  that  date  fall 

a  far  short  of  present-day  standards.   A  number  of  their  faults  cannot 

.  be  corrected  without  the  expenditure  of  considerable  sums  of  money. 

However,  many  things  that  necessitate  little  or  no  expense  may  be 

^  done  to  meet  present-day  requirements.    Undoubtedly  many  of  the 

matters  to  be  mentioned  are  known  rather  commonly  by  teachers  and 

-  administrators  and  are  left  undone  because  of  oversight  rather  than 

of  ignorance.  Other  discussions  deal  with  items  concerning  which  one 

I  is    rarely    enlightened    by    common    sense,    general    information    or 

..courses  in  education,  and  which  therefore  are  probably  not  known 

by  the  majority  of  teachers. 

It  will  be  found  doubtless  that  many  of  the  improvements  sug- 
'  gested  in  this  circular  are  needed  in  most  school  plants.   Some  admin- 

m 


istrators  may  feel,  therefore,  that  the  number  of  improvements  to  be 
made  is  so  great  and  the  amount  available  so  small  that  it  seems 
hardly  worth  while  attempting  a  start.  The  writer  wishes  to  suggest 
that  in  the  case  of  all  except  very  new  and  up-to-date  school  plants 
it  will  be  unwise  probably  to  expect  to  make  all  the  possible  improve- 
ments within  a  year  or  perhaps  even  within  two  or  three  years.  In 
other  words,  in  case  the  improvements  needed  are  numerous  a  com- 
paratively long-time  program  for  carrying  them  out  should  be  drawn 
up.  The  most  needed  ones  that  can  be  made  with  the  amount  avail- 
able may  be  remedied  the  first  year,  those  next  in  importance,  the 
second  year,  and  so  on,  until  all  that  are  practicable  have  been  taken 
care  of.  The  improvements  most  needed  will  of  course  be  very  dif- 
ferent in  different  places  depending  largely  upon  the  previous  con- 
dition of  the  plant.  In  general,  however,  they  fall  into  three  main 
classes.  The  first  in  order  of  importance,  includes  those  improvements 
which  have  as  their  chief  aim  the  immediate  protection  of  life,  that 
is  to  say,  the  prevention  of  serious  disasters.  Practically  all  in  this 
class  are  in  some  way  connected  with  fire  protection,  although  they 
are  discussed  under  a  number  of  other  headings  also  such  as  exits, 
entrances,  stairways,  etc.  The  second  class  includes  those  conditions 
which,  if  neglected,  do  not  result  in  any  immediate  or  great  danger  to 
life  but  in  the  long  run  exert  unfavorable  influences  upon  health. 
Such  faults  as  lack  of  sufficient  playground  space  and  equipment, 
poor  ventilation,  insanitary  drinking  fountains,  unsatisfactory  light- 
ing, etc.,  are  considered  in  this  connection.  The  third  and  less  im- 
portant class  comprises  those  things  that  exert  little  or  no  influence 
upon  the  health  of  the  pupils  but  that  contribute  to  the  effectiveness 
of  the  school  work.  Such  items  as  blackboard  space,  bulletin  boards, 
decorations,  special  rooms,  etc.,  come  in  this  class.  Although  it  may 
not  be  desirable  to  make  a  building  absolutely  perfect  in  regard  to 
all  the  items  enumerated  in  the  first  class,  before  beginning  any  im- 
provements of  conditions  listed  in  the  second  class,  and  so  on,  it  is 
probably  wise,  as  a  general  procedure,  to  give  attention  to  the  three 
classes  of  items  in  the  order  of  their  importance. 

School  sites.  Probably  the  chief  unfavorable  criticism  of  most 
school  sites  is  that  they  are  too  small.  Often  more  land  cannot  be 
added  without  a  fairly  large  outlay,  but,  in  the  case  of  schools  in  the 
outlying  districts  of  cities  or  in  rural  communities,  lots  frequently 
can  be  purchased  for  relatively  small  amounts.  In  addition  to  lawns, 
walks,  etc.  there  should  be  at  least  one  hundred  square  feet  of  actual 

[6] 


playing  space  available  for  each  pupil.  Two  hundred  feet  are  better. 
In  many  cases  where  additional  land  cannot  be  bought,  the  play- 
grounds may  be  added  to  by  removing  sheds  and  other  more  or  less 
temporary  buildings  which  have  no  important  uses,  by  reducing  the 
amount  of  space  devoted  to  lawns,  by  preventing  the  janitor  from 
using  portions  of  the  grounds  for  ash  piles,  etc.,  and  even  by  having 
adjacent  streets  or  alleys  closed  to  traffic.  If  the  area  is  much  too 
small,  the  situation  can  be  relieved  by  having  different  recess  periods 
for  the  children  of  the  upper  and  of  the  lower  grades. 

It  is  generally  recognized  that  school  buildings  and  grounds 
should  be  as  attractive  as  possible,  yet  many  sites  contain  nothing  or 
practically  nothing  except  the  buildings,  the  playground  and  perhaps 
a  few  trees.  Shrubs  and  permanent  vines  cost  little  and  add  beauty 
to  any  building,  new  or  old.  Well-kept  lawns  show  a  general  respect 
for  order  and  for  appearances.  Even  if  the  site  is  small,  a  lawn,  at 
least  in  front  of  the  building,  may  be  kept.  Trees  should  be  on  all 
school  grounds;  if  necessary  they  should  be  planted,  care  being  taken 
to  protect  them  during  the  first  few  years  of  growth,  and  to  place, 
them  so  that  they  will  not  interfere  with  proper  lighting  in  the  school- 
rooms. 

Playgrounds  and  their  equipment.  One  of  the  most  commonly 
neglected  features  of  school  grounds  is  the  surface  of  the  playgrounds. 
In  many,  if  not  most,  cases  the  grounds  are  covered  with  the  dirt  dug 
out  of  the  basement,  with  gravel,  or  with  cinders.  Often  considerable 
areas  of  cement  and  brick  are  found.  The  best  surface  is  probably 
sandy  loam  containing  about  20  percent  of  sand.  This  has  the  ad- 
vantage of  drying  rapidly,  of  being  much  less  muddy  than  pure  loam 
or  clay  in  wet  weather  and  of  being  less  likely  to  injure  pupils  who 
fall  or  who  are  thrown  down  upon  it.  Cinders  and  cement  and  brick 
pavement  have  the  first  two  advantages  but  not  the  third.  In  many 
cases  a  layer  of  sand  spread  over  the  playground  will,  after  it  has 
worked  in,  produce  a  very  good  surface. 

It  is  not  enough  that  the  playground  be  of  sufficient  size;  proper 
equipment  is  also  important.  Backstops  for  baseball,  courts  with 
posts  and  nets  for  tennis  and  volley-ball,  basket-ball  goals,  swings, 
giant  strides,  teeter-boards,  slides,  etc.  are  all  desirable.  If  these  are 
purchased  outright  the  cost  will  be  considerable.  It  is  possible,  how- 
ever, for  the  boys,  not  only  in  high  school  but  in  the  upper  grades, 
working  under  the  direction  of  the  manual-training  or  some  other 

[7] 


teacher,  to  make  and  erect  much  of  this  equipment.  Of  the  apparatus 
mentioned  above  slides  are  perhaps  the  most  difficult  to  construct, 
but  the  writer  has  seen  very  satisfactory  ones  made  by  seventh  and 
eighth-grade  manual  training  classes.  The  material  necessary  costs 
a  comparatively  small  amount. 

Environment  and  approaches.  Xot  infrequently  the  sides  and 
rears  of  school  sites  and  sometimes  even  the  fronts  face  a  row  of 
more  or  less  dirty,  tumbled-down  and  generally  disreputable  barns, 
sheds,  chicken-houses  or  other  out-buildings.  Often  an  improvement 
can  be  effected  by  an  appeal  to  the  community  in  general  or  merely 
to  the  property  owners.  Sheds  so  far  gone  as  to  be  practically  use- 
less may  be  torn  down,  better  ones  repaired  and  painted  and  the 
general  appearance  of  the  school  environment  improved.  The  wrriter 
has  known  of  instances  when  the  owners  were  willing  that  the  desired 
improvement  be  made  but  could  afford  neither  the  time  nor  the 
expense  and  the  work  was  actually  done  by  the  boys  of  the  school, 
during  or  outside  of  school  time. 

Especially  in  rural  communities,  the  streets  or  roads  leading  to 
the  school  are  likely  to  be  bad.  Often  there  are  no  sidewalks  and  the 
mud  becomes  several  inches  deep  in  rainy  weather.  In  such  cases 
a  few  loads  of  crushed  rock,  cinders  or  gravel  spread  in  front  of  the 
school  building  make  a  decided  improvement.  Sometimes  it  is  more 
important  to  give  attention  to  the  road  or  street,  at  other  times  the 
material  may  be  used  to  make  a  walk  or  path,  either  along  the  road 
or  on  the  school  ground  itself.  An  excessive  amount  of  space  should 
not  be  devoted  to  pavements  or  walks  but  where  they  are  necessary 
suitable  material  should  be  used.  A  walk  of  any  of  the  materials  just 
mentioned,  if  two  or  three  inches  higher  than  the  surface  of  the  sur- 
rounding ground,  is  fairly  satisfactory. 

Exits  and  entrances.  Among  the  most  faulty,  dangerous  and 
inconvenient  provisions  in  many  old  school  buildings  are  the  stair- 
ways and  exits.  Ordinarily  their  location  cannot  be  changed  without 
considerable  expense.  It  is,  however,  frequently  possible  to  add  one 
or  two  exits  where  they  are  needed.  For  example,  many  buildings 
contain  no  direct  entrance  to  or  exit  from  the  basement.  By  cutting 
the  wall  and  taking  away  enough  dirt  on  the  outside  to  allow  a  few 
steps  to  be  constructed,  such  an  entrance  often  can  be  placed  where 
it  will  be  very  convenient. 


[8] 


s 

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Fir 

DM 

A 

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( 


One  of  the  most  dangerous  forms  of  construction  is  that  in  which 
a  wide  stairway  leads  into  a  wide  vestibule  with  only  one  or  two 

doors.  Whenever  possible, 
more  doors  should  be  added 
so  that  their  total  width  is 
practically  the  same  as  that  of 
the  stairs  and  vestibule.  If 
this  is  not  done,  "pockets"  are 
left  in  which  children  may 
easily  be  caught  and  crushed 
in  case  of  fire  or  panic.  If  the 
walls  are  so  constructed  that 
additional  doors  cannot  be  cut, 
it  is  probably  wise  to  construct 
a  partition  or  to  place  bars  as 
shown  by  the  dotted  lines  in 
Figure  A.  Such  partitions  or 
bars  remove  the  possibility  of 
children  becoming  caught  in 
the  corners  or  pockets  but  do 
not  prevent  that  of  a  jam  in  the  door  because  pupils  cannot  pass 
through  as  rapidly  as  they  can  approach  it. 

Another  common  form  of  construction  is  shown  by  Figure  B. 
In  this  case  a  "pocket"  is  formed  by  the  short  wall  between  the  two 
inner  pairs  of  doors.  Such  a  wall  can  often  be  reduced  to  a  mere  post 
and  the  doors  widened.  If  this  is  impracticable,  partitions  or  bars 
may  be  placed  as  indicated  and  may  be  erected  by  almost  any  shop 
class. 

In  some  buildings  doors  are  still  found  which  do  not  contain  fire 
or  panic  bolts,  which  open  whenever  pressure  is  applied  against  them 
from  the  inside.  Without  exception  all  outside  exits  through  which 
pupils  ever  pass  should  be  provided  with  these  bolts.  They  are  not 
necessary  in  the  case  of  basement  doors  leading  only  to  and  from  the 
janitor's  quarters  or  the  boiler  room. 

Stairways.  The  typical  old  school  building  of  more  than  one 
story  contains  well-worn  stairways  of  wood  with  storage  closets 
beneath  them.  These  stairways  are  frequently  from  six  to  twelve 
feet  wide  or  else  are  arranged  in  nest  form,  that  is,  two  or  more  stair- 
ways meet  at  a  landing  half-way  between  the  floors  from  which  two 


[9] 


or  more  continue  to  the  next  floor.  Stairways  eight  feet  or  more  in 
width  are  rendered  less  dangerous  by  a  partition  or  banister  down 
the  middle.  A  couple  of  handrails  at  each  side,  one  high  and  one  low, 
are  also  desirable.  The  erection  of  a  partition  or  banister  and  the 
attachment  of  handrails  is  something  that  can  be  done  often  by 
manual-training  classes.  The  doors  of  storage  closets  under  the  stairs 
ought  to  be  nailed  or  locked  tight  and  never  opened,  the  closets 
having  first  been  emptied.  There  are  so  few  articles  commonly 
stored  around  a  building  which  are  not  inflammable  that  this  space 
ought  not  to  be  kept  open  to  receive  them. 

\\  hen  stairs  become  worn  and  need  new  treads  the  old  wooden 
ones  should  be  replaced  by  fireproof  non-slip  material.  If  nothing 
better  can  be  afforded,  cork  linoleum  may  be  used. 

The  nests  of  stairways  mentioned  above  should  be  destroved 
whenever  possible  and  a  single  stairway  substituted  for  each  nest. 
The  fact  that  two  or  more  columns  of  children  proceeding  in  different 
directions  may  enter  the  same  landing  at  the  same  time  provides  an 
element  of  grave  danger  in  case  of  sudden  exit. 

Corridors.  Comparatively  few  of  our  school  buildings  have 
corridors  that  are  too  narrow  but  many  have  those  that  are  much 
wider  than  necessary.  Partly  because  this  added  width  is  available, 
corridors  are  very  often  used  as  cloakrooms,  storage-rooms,  gymna- 
siums, and  for  various  other  purposes.  Such  use  often  cannot  be 
avoided  if  the  building  is  to  be  used  to  best  advantage.  Care  should 
be  taken,  however,  that  whatever  equipment  or  apparatus  is  placed 
in  the  corridors  is  back  against  the  wall  or  in  recesses  so  that  there 
is  no  danger  of  its  interfering  with  the  progress  of  pupils.  A  clear 
space  ten  feet  in  width  is  sufficient  in  main  corridors  and  from  eight 
to  ten  in  others.  The  lighting  and  decoration  of  corridors  is  also  fre- 
quently neglected.    This,  however,  will  be  treated  later. 

Heating  and  ventilating.  The  heating  and  ventilating  systems 
found  in  most  school  buildings  cannot  be  materially  altered  without 
incurring  a  considerable  amount  of  expense.  Those  that  do  exist  are 
so  commonly  misused  and  fail  to  yield  the  best  results  of  which  they 
are  capable  that  a  few  suggestions  as  to  their  use  are  not  inappro- 
priate. The  greatest  emphasis  should  be  placed  on  the  point  that 
the  operation  of  the  heating  and  ventilating  systems  ought  to  be 
well  understood  by  all  who  must  use  them.  The  janitor  frequently 
understands  them  only  fairly  well,  the  principal  poorly,  and  most  of 
the  teachers  scarcely  at  all.   Often  the  janitor  and  teachers  uninten- 

[10] 


tionally  work  at  cross-purposes  to  each  other.  A  teachers'  meeting 
near  the  first  of  the  year,  including  a  trip  through  the  building,  may 
well  be  devoted  to  a  discussion  of  these  systems. 

A  chief  fault  of  hot-air  heating  is  that  the  air  supplied  is  com- 
monly too  dry.  Every  hot-air  furnace  should  be  supplied  with  a  tank 
from  which  water  evaporates  into  the  air  sent  through  the  building. 
There  are  very  few  furnaces  into  which  such  a  tank  cannot  be 
inserted.  Often  when  the  tank  is  there  it  is  not  kept  full  of  water. 
In  case  the  registers  are  in  the  floor  it  is  usually  possible  and  desirable 
to  place  a  shallow  pan  of  water  under  each  register. 

Most  buildings  of  any  size  contain  some  provision  for  ventilat- 
ing other  than  by  opening  windows.  The  older  buildings  usually 
contain  one  inlet  and  one  outlet  through  which  circulation  is  sup- 
posed to  be  maintained  because  of  the  fact  that  warm  air  rises  and 
cold  or  stale  air  falls.  Although  this  system  is  very  rarely  satisfac- 
tory, it  is  undoubtedly  better  than  nothing.  All  too  often  teachers 
close  the  inlet  or  outlet  of  both,  alleging  as  the  reason  that  drafts  are 
caused  if  they  are  left  open.  If  drafts  are  strong  they  can  be  avoided 
by  seating  pupils  away  from  direct  exposure  or  they  can  be  turned 
aside  by  deflectors.  The  same  is  true  of  systems  in  which  circulation 
is  aided  by  means  of  coils  or  fans.  Frequently  there  is  a  belief  that 
the  ventilating  system  will  not  work  when  the  trouble  is  that  those 
using  it  do  not  make  it  work. 

In  the  case  of  rooms  that  must  rely  upon  open  windows  for 
their  supply  of  fresh  air,  window  boards  for  each  window  with  blocks 
on  the  window  casing  to  hold  them  are  needed.  The  boards  should 
ordinarily  be  about  a  foot  in  width  and  the  blocks  so  placed  that  the 
boards  make  an  angle  of  about  30°  away  from  the  window.  That  is, 
the  bottom  of  the  board  should  be  against  the  window  sill  and  close 
to  the  bottom  of  the  sash,  and  the  top  about  six  inches  away  from 
the  window. 

In  any  system  in  which  the  teacher  must  regulate  the  amount 
of  fresh,  cold  air  introduced  into  the  room  it  is  necessary  that  more 
heat  be  furnished  than  is  required  to  keep  the  room  at  the  proper 
temperature,  otherwise  the  teacher  cannot  admit  sufficient  outside 
air  without  lowering  the  temperature  too  much.  Janitors  and  firemen 
frequently  complain  that  they  fire  up  enough  to  get  the  rooms  to  the 
proper  temperature  but  that  the  teachers  let  in  so  much  cold  air  that 
the   rooms   become  chilly.     In   the  opinion  of  the   writer,   teachers 

[11] 


rarely  admit  more  fresh  air  than  is  desirable,  and  the  janitor  usually 
should  be  instructed  to  provide  more  heat. 

It  is  rather  common  for  schoolrooms  to  be  provided  with  ther- 
mometers but  in  many  cases  they  are  so  placed  that  they  do  not 
indicate  the  temperature  existing  in  the  greater  part  of  the  room. 
The  best  method  for  determining  the  temperature  is  to  suspend  the 
thermometer  on  a  string  near  the  center  of  the  room  at  a  height  of 
five  or  six  feet.  This  position,  however,  has  certain  disadvantages, 
as  it  does  not  look  very  well,  necessitates  the  teacher  crossing  half 
the  room  to  ascertain  the  temperature  and  frequently  distracts  the 
pupils.  It  may  be  desirable  therefore  to  hang  the  thermometer  upon 
the  wall,  at  a  height  of  five  or  six  feet,  and  in  a  place  where  it  will 
record  as  nearly  as  possible  the  temperature  of  the  larger  part  of 
the  room.  In  other  words  it  should  not  be  placed  close  to  any  inlet 
or  outlet  of  either  hot  or  cold  air  nor  where  it  will  be  struck  by  a 
direct  current  from  an  inlet. 

Fire  protection.  Every  building  of  two  stories  or  more,  which 
does  not  have  fireproof  stairways  in  enclosed  fireproof  stairwells, 
needs  adequate  fire  escapes.  To  be  adequate  they  must  be  numerous 
enough  so  they  can  be  entered  by  the  pupils  either  from  their  room 
or  from  an  adjoining  and  connecting  room.  This  adjoining  room 
should  not  be  the  corridor,  nor  should  the  pupils  need  to  approach 
very  near  the  door  leading  into  the  corridor.  Standard  fire  escapes 
are  entirely  of  metal,  straight,  not  circular  or  winding,1  wide  enough 
for  two  children  to  march  abreast,  and  reach  all  the  way  to  the 
ground.  Only  those  that  are  enclosed  are  safe  to  use  in  icy  weather. 
Exits  to  fire  escapes  should  always  be  by  means  of  doors  equipped 
with  panic  bolts,  not  by  windows.  All  windows  or  doors  directly 
under  or  beside  fire  escapes  should  contain  fireproof  wireglass  in 
order  to  obviate  the  danger  of  the  escapes  being  rendered  useless 
by  the  fire. 

A  sufficient  number  of  fire  hose  on  each  floor  so  that  every  part 
of  the  building  can  be  reached  is  needed.  This  protection  is  not  pos- 
sible always  in  old  buildings  without  much  expense.  A  sufficient 
number  of  hand  fire  extinguishers,  however,  can  be  provided  for  any 
building.  Of  the  ordinary  small  type  the  standard  is  one  for  every 
2000  square  feet  of  floor  surface,  or  in  other  words,  about  one  for 


1A  possible  exception  to  this  requirement  may  be  made  in  the  case  of  enclosed 
circular  chutes  down  which  the  children  slide. 

[12] 


every  two  classrooms.  Their  location  should  be  such  that  they  are 
easily  visible  and  obtainable  in  case  of  need.  Frequently  buildings, 
which  are  provided  with  a  sufficient  number  of  extinguishers,  derive 
practically  no  protection  because  the  extinguishers  are  of  the  type 
that  must  be  filled  at  stated  periods  and  no  care  is  taken  to  see  that 
this  is  done. 

In  a  model  building  the  heating  plant  is  separated  from  the  rest 
of  the  building  and  is  in  a  fireproof  enclosure.  Unless  this  was 
planned  for  when  the  building  was  erected,  a  change  will  prove  very 
expensive.  However,  the  situation  can  often  be  improved  by  spending 
a  comparatively  small  amount.  If,  as  sometimes  happens,  the  heat- 
ing plant  is  in  a  fireproof  enclosure  with  wooden  doors  between  it 
and  the  rest  of  the  building,  fireproof  doors  can  be  substituted.  If 
the  furnace  is  found  with  bare  wooden  joists  and  flooring  above  it, 
a  layer  of  metal  lath  and  plaster  decreases  the  danger. 

Exit  lights  to  be  used  in  case  of  fire  ought  to  be  provided  at  all 
exits.  It  is  best  to  have  regular  exit  signs  in  red  and  white  with 
lights  inside  but  it  is  fairly  satisfactory  to  use  single  red  bulbs.  Many 
buildings  have  been  provided  with  these  exit  lights  but  no  care  has 
been  taken  to  replace  broken  bulbs,  or  make  other  repairs,  such  as 
disconnected  wiring,  etc. 

Cleaning  and  general  care  of  the  building.  Wooden  floors 
require  a  coating  of  oil  occasionally,  perhaps  twice  a  year,  to  keep 
them  in  good  condition.  Sometimes  objection  has  been  made  to  the 
use  of  oil  upon  floors  because  of  the  danger  of  soiling  clothing.  If, 
however,  high-grade  oil  is  secured  and  properly  applied  this  danger, 
although  greater  with  pine  than  with  maple  floors,  is  very  slight. 
Too  much  oil  should  not  be  applied  at  first  and  all  that  the  floors 
have  not  absorbed  should  be  removed  within  a  few  hours  or  perhaps 
within  a  day.  It  is  best  to  let  several  days  elapse  after  this  before 
the  floors  are  used  again. 

As  comparatively  few  of  our  buildings  are  equipped  with  vacuum- 
cleaning  systems,  the  chief  reliance  is  still  upon  the  brushes  or  brooms. 
The  use  of  sweeping  compounds  sprinkled  over  the  floors  before 
they  are  swept  insures  much  better  results.  Slightly  oiled  cloths  used 
when  dusting  prevent  the  dust  from  rising. 

Artificial  lighting.  Although  it  is  becoming  the  practice  in  all 
school  buildings  to  place  electric  lights,  they  are  rarely  installed 
properly.  The  two  important  criteria  of  installation  are  that  there 
be  plenty  of  light  and  that  there  be  no  glare  in  the  eyes  of  the  pupils. 

[13] 


This  latter  requirement  practically  necessitates  indirect  lighting.  In 
case  the  building  is  already  wired  a  few  more  outlets  in  each  class- 
room may  be  provided  at  comparatively  small  expense.  The  proper 
number  is  from  six  to  nine.  Symmetrical  distribution  ordinarily  is 
the  best.  The  lighting  of  stairways,  corridors,  and  basements  is  often 
even  more  inadequate  than  that  of  classrooms,  and  here  again,  if  the 
wiring  has  already  been  done,  it  is  a  comparatively  simple  matter 
to  provide  a  few  more  outlets. 

Water  supply.  Every  school  building  needs  one  sanitary  drink- 
ing fountain  for  each  fifty  or  seventy-five  pupils.  These  fountains 
should  be  so  located  as  to  be  easy  of  access  from  classrooms,  gym- 
nasiums, playrooms,  and  playgrounds.  In  case  there  is  no  city  water 
system  installed  in  the  building,  sanitary  fountains  can  be  connected 
with  tanks.  Instead  of  the  ordinary  faucet  used  on  the  typical  water 
tank  a  fountain  may  be  procured  and  attached.  It  is  even  possible 
to  attach  a  fountain  to  the  pump  at  an  ordinary  well  so  that  while 
one  child  pumps  another  may  drink. 

Lavatories,  with  hot  water  when  possible,  soap,  and  towels, 
should  be  provided  for  the  use  of  the  children.  Liquid  soap,  con- 
tained in  a  holder  from  which  a  few  drops  at  a  time  may  be  taken, 
is  preferable  to  bars  or  cakes.  Paper  towels,  so  arranged  that  only 
one  can  be  extracted  at  a  time,  are  also  desirable. 

Natural  lighting.  One  of  the  most  serious  faults  of  our  older 
school  buildings  is  the  small  amount  of  wall  space  devoted  to  win- 
dows. Standard  classrooms  contain  window  area  from  one-fifth  to 
one-fourth  as  great  as  their  floor  area,  while  corridors,  stairways,  and 
other  parts  of  the  buildings  need  enough  glassed  area  to  give  suffi-  ; 
cient  light.  In  many  buildings  windows  can  be  enlarged  or  more 
provided,  but  in  some  this  is  impossible  without  unduly  weakening 
the  walls.  All  windows  that  have  been  provided,  however,  should  be 
used.  The  writer  has  been  very  much  impressed  with  the  fact  that 
teachers  seem  to  have  a  natural  inclination  to  shut  out  much  of  the 
light  that  might  enter  a  schoolroom.  Time  and  again  on  cloudy 
days,  in  rooms  containing  not  over  one-half  or  two-thirds  enough 
window  area,  he  has  seen  blinds  drawn  to  cover  half  or  more  of 
each  window.  Unless  direct  sunlight  would  enter,  there  is  no  reason 
why  any  portion  of  a  properly  located  window  needs  to  be  covered 
with  a  blind.  If,  as  is  sometimes  the  case,  windows  are  placed  in  the 
front  of  the  room  they  should  be  permanently  covered  with  dark 
blinds.   The  same  may  be  true  in  some  situations  where  windows  are 

[14] 


at  the  right  or  even  at  the  rear,  but  it  is  probably  better  to  have 
some  shadows  caused  by  light  coming  from  more  than  one  direction 
than  to  have  an  entirely  inadequate  amount  of  light. 

Except  in  the  case  of  rooms,  which  must  be  darkened  at  times 
for  the  use  of  a  lantern  or  for  other  special  reasons,  blinds  should 
be  translucent  and  very  light  in  color.  A  dead  white,  however  is  not 
satisfactory.  It  is  best  to  have  double  blinds  hung  in  the  middle  of 
the  window  so  that  the  lower  one  may  be  pulled  down  to  cover  the 
lower  sash  and  the  upper  one  up  to  cover  the  upper  sash.  If  dark 
blinds  are  necessary,  they  should  be  provided  in  addition  to  and  not 
instead  of  the  light  ones,  and  may  be  single  and  hung  at  the  top  ol 
the  window. 

Color  scheme.  The  best  color  scheme  for  a  classroom  is  very 
light  For  ceilings  white  or  light  cream  and  for  walls  light  buff  or 
very  light  green  are  best.  The  dado  may  be  slightly  darker  than  the 
walls  The  finish  should  be  dull  but  smooth.  In  corridors  a  similar 
scheme  is  good,  although  it  is  permissible  to  have  the  dado  somewhat 
darker  Many  buildings,  the  interiors  of  which  are  comparatively 
dark  and  gloomy,  may  be  greatly  improved  by  refinishmg  in  the 
proper  color. 

Blackboards.  One  who  has  not  investigated  the  matter  probably 
will  be  surprised  to  learn  that  many  of  the  blackboards  in  our  school- 
rooms are  from  six  inches  to  one  foot  too  far  above  the  floor.    For 
children  in  the  first  grade,  the  proper  height  is   about  twenty-four 
inches.    One  inch   may  be   added  for  each  grade,  thus   reaching   a 
height  of  about  thirty-two  inches  for  high-school  use.    Boards  that 
are  too  high  can  be  lowered,  but  this  is  comparatively   expensive. 
However,  low  benches,  a  few  inches  in  height  and  about  eighteen 
inches  in  width  on  which  the  children  can  stand,  may  be  provided 
at  a  very  small  expense.   They  may  be  temporary  and  movable,  or 
built  in  permanently.    Although  they  detract  from  the  appearance 
of  a  room  and  may  add  slightly  to  the  janitor's  labors,  they  are  worth 
while  in  the  case  of  boards  three  inches  or  more  above  the  standard 
height      Not    infrequently    rooms    are    insufficiently    provided    with 
blackboards,   for  unless   half   of   the   children   in  the   room   can   be 
accommodated  at  once,  the  work  is  almost  sure  to  be  hindered.  Ordi- 
narily blackboards  across  the  front  and  one  side  of  the  room  should 
give  enough  space. 

Bulletin  boards.  Every  classroom  ought  to  have  a  bulletin  board. 
Ordinarily  the  best  location  for  this  is  directly  above  the  blackboard. 


[15] 


In  case  such  a  board  is  not  built  in,  a  strip  of  suitable  material, 
perhaps  twelve  inches  in  width,  may  be  placed  above  the  blackboards' 
at  least  above  the  one  at  the  front  of  the  room.  The  best  material 
is  cork  but  soft  wood  does  fairly  well.  Even  a  strip  of  burlap  or 
other  heavy  cloth  to  which  objects  may  be  pinned  is  better  than 
nothing  at  all. 

Cloakrooms.  The  ordinary  cloakroom,  whether  it  is  a  separate 
room  or  merely  a  portion  of  the  wall  of  the  corridor,  contains  only 
a  row  of  hooks  upon  which  clothing  may  be  hung.  These  hooks  are 
usually  so  located  that  the  clothing  hangs  directly  against  the  wall, 
and  the  possibility  of  ventilation  is  considerably  reduced.  Hooks 
mounted  upon  a  board  supported  at  a  distance  of  four  to  six  inches 
from  the  wall  are  a  decided  improvement.  In  case  children  of  several 
grades  use  the  same  cloakroom,  the  hooks  should  be  placed  at  dif- 
ferent heights.  The  construction  of  the  supports  and  the  placement 
of  hooks  can  be  handled  easily  by  a  manual-training  class.  Such  a 
class  can  prepare  also  umbrella  racks,  shelves  or  racks  for  rubber 
shoes  and,  if  necessary,  shelves  for  lunches,  hats  and  caps,  etc. 

Seats  and  desks.   The  standard  equipment  of  a  classroom  in  this 
respect    consists    of    individual    adjustable    and    movable    seats    and 
desks,  except  in  Grade  I  or  perhaps  in  Grades  I  and  II,  where  tables 
and  chairs  are  better.   Such  equipment  is  found  in  comparativelv  few 
classrooms.   As  it  becomes  necessary  to  buy  new  seats  and  desks,  the 
modern  type  should  be  purchased  and  the  old  thus  graduallv  replaced 
with  the  new.    The  typical   school  building  at  present  is   equipped 
with  non-adjustable  seats,  with  perhaps  a  few  adjustable  ones  here 
and  there,  which  perhaps  have  not  been  adjusted.    In  general  if  a 
building  contains  a  comparatively  small  number  of  adjustable  seats, 
they  should  be  divided  about  equally  among  the  different  rooms  and 
should  be  readjusted  from  time  to  time  as  the  pupils  change.    The 
next  best  thing  to  having  adjustable  seats  is  to  have  at  least  three 
sizes  of  non-adjustable  seats  in  each  room.   Experience  will  show  the 
proper  proportion  of  each  size  to  have,  but  from  year  to  year  a  few 
seats  probably  will  need  to  be  moved  from  one  room  to  another. 
In  general  smaller  seats  should  be  placed  near  the  front  of  the  room, 
and  larger  ones  near  the  rear.    If  for  any  reason  children  must  use 
seats  too  large  for  them,  low  footstools  of  the  proper  height  prevent 
discomfort  and  even  injury.   The  proper  height  is  that  which  allows 
the  feet  to  rest  solidly  upon  the  stool  as  they  should  upon  the  floor. 

[16] 


Not  infrequently  the  desk  tops  become  very  much  scratched  or 
disfigured,  sometimes  merely  from  ordinary  wear,  sometimes  from 
willful  acts.  Such  desk  tops  are  a  real  hindrance  to  school  work  and 
an  encouragement  to  further  carving.  Frequently  they  can  be  planed, 
sandpapered  and  refinished.  Usually  this  can  be  done  more  easily 
after  they  have  been  removed  from  the  desks.  Much  if  not  all  of  this 
work  can  be  done  in  the  school  shop. 

General  equipment  of  classrooms.  There  are  dozens  of  articles 
which  any  classroom  needs  in  order  that  satisfactory  work  may  be 
done.  These  of  course  vary  somewhat  with  the  grade  and  subject 
taught.  The  writer  merely  wishes  to  mention  a  few  which  can  be 
homemade  either  by  the  teacher  or  by  a  manual-training  class. 
The  list  given  is  not  all-inclusive  but  is  illustrative  of  a  number  of 
such  articles:  aquarium,  bookcase,  dictionary  holder,  flag  holder, 
pointer,  sand  table,  supply  cabinet,  table,  umbrella  stand,  window 
stick. 

Decorations.  It  is  decidedly  important  that  the  various  parts  of 
a  school  building,  both  classrooms  and  corridors,  be  supplied  with 
appropriate  decorations  in  addition  to  the  actual  finish  of  the  walls. 
Chief  among  the  decorations  to  be  used  are  pictures.  Often  expensive 
pictures  cannot  be  purchased  although  in  some  cases  they  may  be 
procured  through  an  active  and  interested  parent-teacher  or  similar 
organization.  A  number  of  appropriate  pictures,  however,  can  be 
secured.  Some  of  our  popular  magazines  publish  reproductions  of 
great  paintings  which  may  be  framed  at  small  expense  and  are  cer- 
tainly better  than  nothing.  In  almost  any  community  there  are  a 
number  of  individuals  who  have  pictures  which  they  are  willing  to 
donate  to  the  school.  Of  course  many  such  pictures  are  of  little  worth 
or  are  even  positively  undesirable  but  they  may  be  accepted  and 
eventually,  if  not  immediately,  relegated  to  inconspicuous  places.  In 
other  cases  the  owners  will  lend  their  pictures.  Various  organizations 
exist  which  maintain  traveling  exhibits  that  may  be  secured  for  a 
time  at  slight  cost.  The  writer  does  not  wish  to  suggest  the  necessity 
of  a  large  number  of  pictures.  Three  or  four  good  ones  of  fair  size 
are  enough  for  a  single  classroom,  although  more  may  be  added  with- 
out giving  a  crowded  appearance.  In  general  the  best  one  or  two  of 
the  pictures  should  be  hung  at  the  front  of  the  room  and  most  of  the 
others  at  the  right,  assuming  that  the  light  comes  from  the  left. 
Corridors  are  sometimes  used  more  or  less  as  art  galleries  and  often 
are  made  very  attractive.    In  addition  to  pictures  there  are  other 

[17] 


desirable  decorations.  Busts  or  statues,  bas-reliefs  and  other  forms 
are  available.  Portions  of  the  pupils'  work  may  be  exhibited  and 
changed  from  time  to  time.  Indeed  changes  may  be  made  with 
pictures  and  other  more  permanent  decorations,  especially  if  the 
building  is  so  used  that  pupils,  in  the  course  of  their  school  career, 
spend  most  of  their  time  in  a  few  rooms.  An  exchange  of  pictures 
between  rooms  every  few  months  causes  little  trouble  and  is  often 
distinctly  worth  while.  Such  exchanges  may  be  so  planned  that  each 
pupil  will  in  time  come  in  contact  with  each  picture  in  the  building. 

Special  rooms.  The  ideal  elementary  school  building  possesses  a 
number  of  rooms  devoted  to  special  uses,  the  ideal  high-school  build- 
ing a  still  larger  number.  Comparatively  few  buildings  contain  satis- 
factory rooms  for  all  of  the  uses  suggested.  Many  rooms,  however, 
either  disused  at  present  or  used  for  storage,  may  be  devoted  to  a 
worth  while  purpose.  For  example,  it  is  not  uncommon  to  find  base- 
ment rooms,  which  merely  require  cleaning  up  or  perhaps  the  laying 
of  a  good  floor  or  the  installation  of  more  artificial  light,  to  make 
fairly  satisfactory  playrooms.  In  a  school  of  any  size  such  a  room 
will  not  be  able  to  accommodate  all  of  the  pupils  but  if  it  can 
take  care  of  even  the  pupils  of  one  or  two  grades  at  recess  or  at  other 
intermissions  in  bad  weather  it  is  certainly  worth  while.  It  may  be 
used  by  the  lower  grades,  or  the  privilege  may  be  rotated  from  grade 
to  grade.  If  the  ceiling  is  high  enough  it  may  be  fitted  up  as  a  gym- 
nasium and  may  be  equipped  with  apparatus  much  of  which  can  be 
made  by  the  boys  of  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  or  of  the  high 
school.2 

In  other  situations  when  such  a  room  is  not  desirable  for  a  play- 
room it  may  be  used  as  a  lunchroom,  cooking  or  sewing-room,  manual- 
training  room,  general-science  room,  bicycle  and  sled  room,  or  in 
some  other  way.  Tables  and  cases  for  sewing,  cooking  and  science 
rooms  and  even  benches  for  manual-training  rooms  can  be  made  by 
the  boys  under  their  teacher's  direction. 

Xot  infrequently  buildings  contain  one  or  more  rather  small 
rooms  of  which  little  use  is  made  and  which  may  be  converted  into 
fairly  satisfactory  libraries,  teachers'  rest  rooms,  nurses'  rooms,  etc. 
Here  again  much  of  the  equipment  can  come  from  the  school  shop. 
In  the  case  of  teachers'  rest  rooms  the  teachers,  perhaps  aided  by 
patrons,  often  supply  part  or  all  of  the  furniture. 


2See  p.  7  for  a  description  of  equipment  made  by  school  boys. 

[18] 


'   . 


